Strong-confinement (SC) waveguides based on high-index contrast support dense photonic device integration, promising complex microphotonic circuits such as on-chip wavelength multiplexers or entire photonic networks on a microprocessor die. As device density and complexity increase in a planar photonic circuit, efficient waveguide crossings quickly become of paramount importance because the number of waveguide crossings required rises quickly, and tolerable levels of loss and crosstalk per crossing accordingly drop to very small limits.
Straightforward crossing of single-mode SC waveguides leads to strong diffraction losses, and a number of improvements have been proposed. Low-Q resonator-based silicon waveguide crossings provide, in theory, ˜0.2 dB loss, but have limited low-loss bandwidths (typically in the range of 10-15 nm), challenging critical dimensions, and fabrication sensitivities. On the other hand, waveguide crossings using mode expanders to widen the effective aperture and reduce diffraction losses are broadband and tolerant, but are typically large or not optimally efficient, giving a loss on the order of 0.4 dB, both in theory and practice, or a loss of 0.2 dB with a multi-layer structure. To reduce diffraction losses, multimode interference-based crossings that mimic focusing have been investigated, but although they are more compact in size, their predicted losses remain on the order of 0.2 dB per crossing. While such losses may seem small, they may not be acceptable in dense circuits where one may thus accumulate about 10-20 dB of loss after 50 crossings. It is therefore desirable to develop designs for waveguide crossings, suitable for on-chip integration, that have lower losses than currently possible, and that permit the cascading of tens or hundreds of crossings, as is typical in dense integrated photonic circuits, with tolerable insertion loss.
Problems associated with waveguide crossings and junctions are not limited to intersecting waveguides, but similarly occur in optical modulator structures. The confinement of light in waveguide cross sections and resonator volumes on the scale of a few optical wavelengths (squared or cubed, respectively) enables strong light-matter interaction that may be utilized in energy-efficient, compact-footprint electro-optic modulators, as illustrated in FIG. 1. See Xu et al., Nature (2005). Such modulators 100 may be based, for example, on microring resonators 110 formed of a semiconductor waveguide core 120, e.g., of silicon. The waveguide has a ridge-like cross-section 122 due to lateral sections 130 (“flanges”) of p-type doped and n-type doped silicon attached to both sides of the waveguide core 120. These lateral sections 130 are optically isolated from, but in electrical contact with, the waveguide core 120. Together with the intrinsic-semiconductor core 120 between them, they form a p-i-n junction that may be electrically driven to inject electric charge carriers into the waveguide region 122 containing the confined optical field. Charge injection from an electric power supply 124 into the “i” (intrinsic-semiconductor) region, i.e., the waveguide core 120, causes modulation of the material refractive index at optical (e.g., 1550 nm infrared) wavelengths due to the plasma dispersion effect.
Electro-optic modulators such as structure 100 enable high-efficiency communication links for telecom applications as well as for on-chip photonic networks for microprocessors, including interconnects for multi-core processors. However, they may have a disadvantageous design trade-off. In a shallow-etch ridge waveguide, the mode may be weakly confined laterally in the waveguide, and the bending radiation loss is typically large for small radii. Hence, large radius ring resonators 110 are preferably used to achieve low loss and a high quality factor (Q), leading to lower energy efficiency (due to a larger volume of confinement for the optical mode) as well as larger devices (due to the lager radius). In addition, as a consequence of weak optical confinement, the doped regions are typically laterally far from the waveguide core, increasing series resistance. On the other hand, if a deep-etch ridge waveguide is used, the lateral flanges 130 are usually thin, providing reasonably strong confinement, and enabling the doped regions to be placed closer to the waveguide core 120, without having large overlap with the optical mode that would incur large optical losses. However, the thin flanges increase series resistance between the electrical contacts, leading to lower energy efficiency. It is desirable to provide modulator designs, including resonator designs, that have both low resistance between the electrical contacts through the intrinsic region and confinement of the optical mode, enabling small waveguide cross sections and resonator volumes without large optical overlap.
Furthermore, multimode resonators such as circular disk resonators are known to support low bending losses (in comparison to single-mode microring resonators of comparable radius), but to suffer coupling inefficiencies when coupling to an input waveguide because multiple disk modes may be excited, whereas only a single excited resonant mode is of interest. This problem is also known to occur in multimode ring resonators, or single-mode microring resonators very near the cut-off condition for higher-order modes. Single-mode microring resonators with waveguide cross-sectional dimensions that are well within (smaller than) the cutoff-condition dimensions for higher-order modes support efficient waveguide-resonator couplers with low scattering losses. However, their bending loss is higher than that of disk resonators of comparable radius that have low-bending-loss whispering-gallery modes. It is, therefore, desirable to provide alternative resonator designs that allow efficient coupling and strong confinement.
Generally, the problems described above are related to excess loss in SC optical waveguide and resonator devices due to interaction of functional parts of a device with the optical field in the device. This interaction may cause optical loss because the functional parts are optical scattering dielectric objects or absorptive (doped-semiconductor) material regions having contact with the optical field in the device. It would be of advantage to devise device designs that can strategically place these functional parts outside the reach of the optical field, without compromising their original function or the efficiency of the design for that function (e.g., to serve as a crossing, modulation region, or waveguide-resonator coupling region).